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The Best Acetyl-L Carnitine of 2023 – Reviewed and Top Rated

After hours researching and comparing all models on the market, we find out the Best Acetyl-L Carnitine of 2023. Check our ranking below.

2,978 Reviews Scanned

Rank No. #1
NOW Supplements, Acetyl-L Carnitine 500 mg, Amino Acid, Brain And Nerve Cell Function*, 200 Veg Capsules
  • TRANSPORTS FATTY ACIDS: Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALC) is a modified amino acid that supports cellular energy production by assisting in the transport of fat into the mitochondria where it is converted into ATP (cellular fuel).
  • Product Note: Exposure to heat or sunlight may lead to melting/damage of product. Hence customers are expected to be available during the product delivery
  • BOOSTS CELLULAR ENERGY: ALC is a highly bioavailable form of carnitine that can cross the blood-brain barrier, where it helps to manage typical oxidative stress, supports mitochondrial function, and helps to maintain normal neurotransmitter activity.Store in a cool, dry place after opening
  • CLASSIFICATIONS/CERTIFICATIONS: Kosher, Non-GMO
  • GMP Quality Assured: NPA A-rated GMP certification means that every aspect of the NOW manufacturing process has been examined, including our laboratory/testing methods (for stability, potency, and product formulation).
SaleRank No. #3
Nutricost Acetyl L-Carnitine 500mg, 180 Capsules - Non-GMO and Gluten Free
  • Pure Acetyl L-Carnitine: Each capsule contains 500mg of Acetyl L-Carnitine, ensuring you receive a potent dose of this important amino acid derivative.
  • 180 capsules per bottle: With 180 capsules in each bottle, you have a generous supply of Acetyl L-Carnitine to last you for an extended period, allowing for consistent usage.
  • Convenient daily serving: With a recommended serving size of just one capsule per day, Nutricost Acetyl L-Carnitine is easy to incorporate into your daily routine, providing you with a hassle-free way to support your well-being.
  • Quality Manufacturing: Nutricost Acetyl L-Carnitine is manufactured in an NSF certified facility following Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), ensuring the highest standards of quality and purity.
  • Independent Testing: To guarantee the integrity of our product, each batch of Nutricost Acetyl L-Carnitine undergoes independent testing in third-party ISO accredited laboratories, ensuring that you receive a reliable and trustworthy supplement.
SaleRank No. #4
Acetyl L-Carnitine 1,000mg Per Serving, 150 Capsules (ALCAR for Brain Function Support, Memory, Attention, and Stamina) Acetyl L Carnitine That is Manufactured and Tested in The USA by Double Wood
  • Supercharge your Mitochondria; ALCAR promotes mitochondrial function which helps support cognitive function and exercise endurance
  • Support Cognitive Function; L Carnitine is able to pass through the blood brain barrier to support memory, learning, and overall cognitive function
  • Gain an Edge in the Gym; By supporting mitochondrial function in your muscles ALCAR promotes energy production and can support workout endurance
  • Manufactured and Tested in the USA; DoubleWood Supplement's Acetyl L Carnitine pills are manufactured and tested for microbes and heavy metals right here in the USA
  • Become your Best Self; Give your Mitochondria the fuel it needs for your brain and body to operate at its absolute best
SaleRank No. #5
Acetyl L-Carnitine Capsules 1500mg | 200 Count | Extra Strength ALCAR Supplement | Non-GMO, Gluten Free | by Horbaach
  • ACETYL L-CARNITINE: A form of L-Carnitine, an amino acid found naturally within the body
  • ADVANCED FORMULA: Quick release capsules deliver 1500 mg Acetyl L-Carnitine for maximum support!
  • EXPERTLY CRAFTED: Our professional formula is backed by our commitment to purity and potency
  • HORBAACH MANUFACTURERS: Laboratory Tested, Trusted Ingredients, Superior Quality, 100% Guaranteed!
  • NATURALLY FREE OF: Gluten, Wheat, Yeast, Milk, Lactose, Soy, Artificial Color, Flavor & Non-GMO
Rank No. #6
Jarrow Formulas Acetyl L-Carnitine 500 mg - Antioxidant Protection for the Brain - Supports Energy Production & Metabolism - Heart & Cardiovascular Health - 120 Veggie Capsules
  • Acetylated Form - Acetyl L-Carnitine is the acetylated form of l-carnitine and functions as an antioxidant for the brain.* L-carnitine is a brain-specific carnitine that crosses the blood-brain barrier. Acetyl l-carnitine.
  • Energy Production - Acetyl l-carnitine supports energy production via the metabolism of fatty acids to yield the universal energy molecule ATP.
  • Veggie Capsules - Each capsule delivers 500 mg of acetyl l-carnitine. Adults take 1 capsule once or twice per day on an empty stomach, or as directed by your qualified healthcare professional. Suitable for vegans and vegetarians.
  • Superior Science, Smarter Formulas - Informed by strong scientific research, Jarrow Formulas products are carefully crafted to ensure you get the benefit of each and every vitamin, mineral and supplement.
Rank No. #7
Thorne Acetyl-L-Carnitine - 500 mg - Supports Brain Function and Healthy Nerve Sensations in The Hands and Feet - Gluten-Free, Soy-Free, Dairy-Free - 60 Capsules
  • Acts as an antioxidant in the brain and nerves of the upper and lower limbs
  • Supports healthy brain function
  • Promotes healthy sperm count and sperm motility
  • Thorne products contain ingredients from the purest sources worldwide. Flavors, colors, preservatives, and sweeteners are derived from natural sources. Our products never contain gluten, Genetically Modified Organisms (known as GMOs), artificial preservatives, stearates, wheat, rye, barley, eggs, or nuts. This product does not contain dairy, soy, corn, sugar, or magnesium stearate
  • Thorne's commitment to integrity and science-backed products has helped us earn the trust of thousands of health-care professionals, U.S. National Teams, the Mayo Clinic, and families around the world
SaleRank No. #8
NOW Supplements, Acetyl-L-Carnitine 750 mg, Amino Acid, Brain And Nerve Cell Function*, 90 Tablets
  • TRANSPORTS FATTY ACIDS*: Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALC) is a modified amino acid that supports cellular energy production by assisting in the transport of fat into the mitochondria where it is converted into ATP (cellular fuel).*
  • Product Note: Exposure to heat or sunlight may lead to melting/damage of product. Hence customers are expected to be available during the product delivery
  • BOOSTS CELLULAR ENERGY*: ALC is a highly bioavailable form of carnitine that can cross the blood-brain barrier, where it helps to manage typical oxidative stress, supports mitochondrial function, and helps to maintain normal neurotransmitter activity.*
  • CLASSIFICATIONS/CERTIFICATIONS: Kosher, Non-GMO
  • GMP Quality Assured: NPA A-rated GMP certification means that every aspect of the NOW manufacturing process has been examined, including our laboratory/testing methods (for stability, potency, and product formulation).
SaleRank No. #9
BULKSUPPLEMENTS.COM Acetyl L-Carnitine Powder - ALCAR HCl, Carnitine Supplement, Acetyl L-Carnitine 1000mg - ALCAR Powder, Unflavored & Gluten Free, 1000mg per Serving, 500g (1.1 lbs)
  • ✔️ Boost your Energy Levels: Get the energy boost you need with our L-Carnitine supplement! Acetyl L-Carnitine powder is one form of carnitine supplement that can be beneficial for healthy & active lifestyle.* Plus, our Acetyl L-Carnitine 1000mg, an amino acids supplement, helps you keep sustained energy so you can power through long days and vigorous activities!*
  • ✔️ Ideal for Cognitive Support: For those seeking an extra edge to stay in tip-top shape, look no further! Make our carnitine supplement part of your daily routine and start feeling the benefits on your brain health, as well as cognitive health!* Just 2/5 tsp, or 1g, of this Acetyl L-Carnitine powder, an L-Carnitine supplement, a day gives your cognitive function the boost it needs.*
  • ✔️ Easy to Use & Gluten Free: Get the most out of your carnitine supplement with our easy to use powder! Our Acetyl L-Carnitine powder, or ALCAR powder, is gluten, dairy, soy and sugar free. Perfect for those with dietary restrictions, or anyone looking to live a healthier lifestyle.
  • ✔️ Perfect for Daily Intake: Enjoy the convenience and simplicity of our ALCAR powder! Take your daily dose of ALCAR Acetyl L-Carnitine and add it to any beverage or just water. And, our Carnitine supplement, in Acetyl L-Carnitine 1000mg, is also ideal if you prefer this form of Carnitine over the various forms of Carnitine supplement and if you like to combine it with your daily shake!
  • ⭐ High Quality: Our Acetyl L-Carnitine powder is made from the highest quality ingredients, for results you can trust! It's third party tested and certified to meet the highest cGMP standards so that you get only pure & clean supplements. Enjoy all the benefits of taking 1000mg of this amino acids supplement for men & women with peace of mind.
Rank No. #10
Doctor's Best Acetyl L-Carnitine, Help Boost Energy Production, Support Memory/Focus, Mood, Non-GMO, Vegan, Gluten Free, 120 Count (Pack of 1) (DRB-00152)
  • DOCTOR’S BEST ACETYL-L-CARNITINE (ALC) is a naturally occurring form of L-carnitine, a vitamin-like nutrient synthesized in the body from the amino acids lysine and methionine. It helps support cognitive function and support health brain neuron function.
  • Product Note: Exposure to heat or sunlight may lead to melting/damage of product. Hence customers are expected to be available during the product delivery
  • BRAIN FUNCTION BOOST - helps supply the brain with energy through by enhancing mitochondrial efficiency.
  • ENERGY ENHANCER - supports improvement of memory, learning and focusing. Helps to reduce unwanted stored fats and enhances brain health.
  • BEST QUALITY ABSORPTION – ALC readily crosses the blood-brain barrier, where it has specific benefits for brain neurons. ALC has been shown to promote healthy ALC levels that can pass the blood-brain barrier to support healthy brain function.
SaleRank No. #11
MRM - Acetyl L-Carnitine - 500mg Per Capsule 60 Vcaps
  • IMPROVES ENERGY and ENDURANCE IN PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE: The bottom line is that ALC can improve energy and endurance in physical performance. ALC represents a substance, which is a high-energy storage compound.
  • SUPPORTS MEMORY, ALERTNESS and MENTAL FOCUS: Acetyl L-Carnitine (ALC) is the acetyl ester of the amino acid L-Carnitine, which transports fats into the mitochondria to be converted into an energy source.
  • ALC CAN INCREASE ATP PRODUCTION: Research has shown that ALC can increase the amount of ATP produced in the body for energy and is one of the premiere anti-aging comlbs, especially in relation to brain and nervous system deterioration.
  • INSPIRED BY NATURE, SUPPORTED BY SCIENCE: Our goal is to provide consumers with products sourced with the highest quality ingredients, verified by third party evaluation. We are committed to Non-GMO, organic, gluten-free and vegan certifications.
  • OUR MISSION: Our staff of highly trained professionals is committed and passionate about the development of innovative nutritional supplements that reflect sound, clinical experimental data collection, interpretation and application.
SaleRank No. #12
Life Extension Acetyl-L-Carnitine, Acetyl-L-Carnitine, vitamin C, Brain, mood & nerve health, cellular energy, 3-month supply, Gluten-Free, Non-GMO, Vegetarian, 100 Capsules
  • Why supplement with carnitine?—Carnitine helps turn food into cellular energy, promoting youthful cellular energy metabolism that benefits your brain health, mood, nerves and more.
  • Promotes cellular energy—Acetyl-L-carnitine helps fight oxidative stress at the cellular level. Combine that with this nutrient’s ability to facilitate cellular energy production, and you have an invaluable daily supplement for whole-body wellness.
  • Good for your brain—Acetyl-L-carnitine is great for supporting the parts of your body that need lots of cellular energy, such as your brain and nervous system (as well as your heart and cardiovascular system). This specialized carnitine supplement can even help with things not usually associated with your mind, such as nerve comfort.
  • Ingredients matter—Sourced using only the finest raw ingredients with the purity and potency your body deserves. The majority of our products are non-GMO, gluten-free and manufactured in the USA—and a Certificate of Analysis is available for every product we produce. 
  • Live your healthiest life—For over 40 years, we’ve been developing advanced, effective formulas made with the highest standards and based on the latest scientific findings. We believe the answers to a healthier, richer life are within reach, and that rigorous scientific research is the path to get us there. That’s why so many of our nutritional formulas are designed using specific ingredients and amounts based on scientific studies.
Rank No. #13
Superior Labs | Acetyl L-Carnitine 1000mg | 200 caps | Maximum Absorption | Pure Vegetable Capsules | Zero Synthetic Additives | Superior Absorption
  • BRAIN FUNCTION SUPPORT - All-natural energy enhancer supports improvement of memory and focus. Helps to mobilize stored fat and enhances brain health. Helps support athletic performance, stamina and cardiovascular health. Non-GMO. Acetyl L-Carnitine 1000mg. 100% pure vegetable capsules.
  • ABSOLUTE PURITY - ZERO SYNTHETIC ADDITIVES, FILLERS, HEAVY METALS, ADULTERANTS - You will never see unnecessary additives such as stearates, dioxides, glycerides or fillers other brands use to make manufacturing cheaper, faster and easier. In addition, we put all ingredients and products through rigorous testing to make sure they are 100% free of contaminants.
  • UNQUESTIONABLE QUALITY - ALL PRODUCTS PRODUCED IN 3rd PARTY CERTIFIED NSF FACILITIES - Few can pass the stringent standards of NSF. Our products are produced in facilities that have been 3rd party audited and certified for quality by NSF, one of the most stringent quality manufacturing assurance organizations in the industry.
  • ZERO UNNATURAL INGREDIENTS - Our product contains NO unnatural ingredients such as magnesium stearate, silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide and other potentially harmful unnatural ingredients that are commonly found in other brands.
  • NO RISK AND NO HASSLE - For almost a decade, we have been delighting Amazon customers. If you are not satisfied with the benefits, results, or are unsatisfied with the product in any other way, please contact us and we'll gladly refund your money in 48 hours or less. That's it - no questions, no hassle, no risk.
Rank No. #14
Best Naturals Acetyl L-Carnitine 500 Mg 120 Capsules (120 Count (Pack of 1))
  • 3rd Party Lab Tested for Purity & Quality.
  • 500 mg of Acetyl L-Carnitine per Capsule - 120 Capsules per Bottle.
  • Non-GMO & Gluten Free.
  • Proudly Made in USA, GMP Compliant, FDA Registered Facility.
  • No Artificial Color, Flavor or Sweetener, No Preservatives, No Sugar, No Milk, No Corn, No Soy, No Egg, No Lactose, No Gluten, No Wheat, No Yeast, No Fish. Sodium Free.
Rank No. #15
Source Naturals Acetyl L-Carnitine & Alpha-Lipoic Acid 650mg- 120 Tablets
  • This product combines two important compounds.
  • Acetyl-l-carnitine is a derivative of l-carnitine, a powerful antioxidant that plays a significant role transporting long chain fatty acids into the mitochondria of cells.
  • Alpha-lipoic acid is a powerful antioxidant, soluble in both fat and water.
  • Alpha-lipoic acid is a coenzyme that assists in the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-coenzyme A, which is the beginning point for the Krebs cycle production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for cellular energy.
  • Alpha-lipoic acid is a coenzyme that assists in the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-coA. Acetyl-coA is thebeginning point for the Krebs cycle, one of the body’s main energy production cycles, which produces thehigh-energy molecule ATP (adenosine tripho
Rank No. #16
Nutricost Acetyl L-Carnitine (ALCAR) 100 Grams - 1000mg Per Serving - Non-GMO, Gluten Free, Acetyl L-Carnitine Powder
  • 1 Gram Of High Quality Acetyl L-Carnitine Powder Per Serving
  • Unique Form of L-Carnitine
  • Non-GMO, Gluten Free, 3rd Party Tested
  • Scoop Included
  • Made in a GMP Compliant, FDA Registered Facility
SaleRank No. #17
Acetyl L Carnitine HCL & Alpha Lipoic Acid 1200mg | 120 Capsules | ALC ALA Complex | Non-GMO & Gluten Free Supplement | by Horbaach
  • ABOUT ACETYL L-CARNITINE HCL: A highly bioavailable form of the Amino Acid L-Carnitine
  • POTENT COMPLEX: Features 1,200 mg of Acetyl L-Carnitine HCL and Alpha Lipoic Acid per serving
  • EXPERTLY CRAFTED: Our professional formula is backed by our commitment to purity and potency
  • HORBAACH MANUFACTURERS: Laboratory Tested, Trusted Ingredients, Superior Quality, 100% Guaranteed!
  • NATURALLY FREE OF: Gluten, Wheat, Yeast, Milk, Lactose, Soy, Artificial Color, Flavor & Non-GMO
Rank No. #18
Amazing Formulas Acetyl L-Carnitine Hcl Veggie Dietary Supplement - 500 Mg, Veggie Capsules (Non GMO,Gluten Free) Per Bottle - Promotes Energy Production & Cognitive Function (60 Count)
  • BOOST ENERGY THE NATURAL WAY As a mitochondrial energy optimizer, carnitine helps to support energy production at the cellular level. Unlike energy tablets, energy drinks and energy pills that contain harsh stimulants, l carnitine supports healthy energy levels without all the jitteriness and side effects
  • THE BEST FORM OF CARNITINE Each l carnitine 500mg supplement provides you with a potent dose of acetyl l carnitine HCl. In clinical studies, acetyl l carnitine or acytl l carnitine has been shown to cross the blood-brain barrier more readily than other forms to provide enhanced brain health and cognitive support
  • JUST ONE CAPSULE PER DAY Why swallow countless pills or down drink after drink to stay energized? Just one acetyl carnitine capsule is all that's needed to supply your body with the fuel to keep you going
  • QUALITY ASSURED Amazing Nutrition supplements are manufactured in a GMP-certified facility in the United States for purity and safety. No artificial colors, flavors, sweeteners and preservatives are added
  • IDEAL FOR ALL DIETS Vegetarian friendly capsules are free of sugar, starch, milk, lactose, soy, gluten, wheat, yeast, fish and sodium to complement all healthy diets
Rank No. #19
Amazing Formulas Acetyl L-Carnitine Hcl 500 mg 120 Veggie Capsules Supplement | Non-GMO | Gluten Free | Made in USA | Suitable for Vegetarians
  • Acetyl L-Carnitine Hcl 500mg 120 Veggie Capsules Supplement
  • 120 Servings per Bottle, 1 Capsules Per Serving
  • Non-GMO, Gluten Free, Third Party Tested
  • Manufactured in accordance with GMP Standards
  • Proudly made in the USA with Guaranteed Purity & Potency
Rank No. #20
BRI Nutrition Acetyl L-Carnitine - Natural Supplement to Help Boost Energy Production, Support Memory/Focus, Promote Positive Mood - 500mg 180 Vegetable Cellulose Capsules
  • WHY US: We looked at all other Aceytl Carnitine supplements on the market and were surprised by how huge they were! Most of them are so large and dry that a horse could not swallow them. We decided we should source the strongest ingredients at clinical strength and sell them at a reasonable price.
  • HOW IT WORKS: Acetyl L-Carnitine is the MOST POTENT form of carnitine for boosting energy and alleviating age related side effects like neurological decline and chronic fatigue.
  • PURITY: We use only the finest ingredients, all of which are manufactured in our US, GMP compliant, state-of-the-art, facility. Every batch is laboratory tested for quality assurance. OUR GUARANTEE: We're very so confident that you'll love this product that we offer a 60-day, 100% money-back guarantee.
  • COMMON NAMES: L-Carnitine can be misspelled in numerous ways. You may see some of these around: caratine, carnetine, and carantine. Otherwise, you can see it translated into other languages such as lkarnitin in Bosnian and l-carnitina in Spanish. You shouldn't confuse it as well with other supplements such as acetyl-l-carnitine, l-arginine or arginine/arginate, fumarate, glutamine and others.
  • SHARE: Consider ordering one bottle for yourself and another for a friend or loved one. Keep each other motivated and reach your goals together and more quickly. BRI Nutrition stands by every quality product we make. We manufacture only premium vitamins, capsules, pills, tablets, powders, multivitamins, supplements, topical liquids, serums, vegan foods and extracts for men, women, and children. Check BRINutrition out today!

Last update on 2023-08-13 / Affiliate links / Product Titles, Images, Descriptions from Amazon Product Advertising API

How Do You Buy The Best Acetyl-L Carnitine?

Do you get stressed out thinking about shopping for a great Acetyl-L Carnitine? Do doubts keep creeping into your mind? We understand, because we’ve already gone through the whole process of researching Acetyl-L Carnitine, which is why we have assembled a comprehensive list of the greatest Acetyl-L Carnitine available in the current market. We’ve also come up with a list of questions that you probably have yourself.

We’ve done the best we can with our thoughts and recommendations, but it’s still crucial that you do thorough research on your own for Acetyl-L Carnitine that you consider buying. Your questions might include the following:

  • Is it worth buying an Acetyl-L Carnitine?
  • What benefits are there with buying an Acetyl-L Carnitine?
  • What factors deserve consideration when shopping for an effective Acetyl-L Carnitine?
  • Why is it crucial to invest in any Acetyl-L Carnitine, much less the best one?
  • Which Acetyl-L Carnitine are good in the current market?
  • Where can you find information like this about Acetyl-L Carnitine?

We’re convinced that you likely have far more questions than just these regarding Acetyl-L Carnitine, and the only real way to satisfy your need for knowledge is to get information from as many reputable online sources as you possibly can.

Potential sources can include buying guides for Acetyl-L Carnitine, rating websites, word-of-mouth testimonials, online forums, and product reviews. Thorough and mindful research is crucial to making sure you get your hands on the best-possible Acetyl-L Carnitine. Make sure that you are only using trustworthy and credible websites and sources.

We provide an Acetyl-L Carnitine buying guide, and the information is totally objective and authentic. We employ both AI and big data in proofreading the collected information. How did we create this buying guide? We did it using a custom-created selection of algorithms that lets us manifest a top-10 list of the best available Acetyl-L Carnitine currently available on the market.

This technology we use to assemble our list depends on a variety of factors, including but not limited to the following:

  1. Brand Value: Every brand of Acetyl-L Carnitine has a value all its own. Most brands offer some sort of unique selling proposition that’s supposed to bring something different to the table than their competitors.
  2. Features: What bells and whistles matter for an Acetyl-L Carnitine?
  3. Specifications: How powerful they are can be measured.
  4. Product Value: This simply is how much bang for the buck you get from your Acetyl-L Carnitine.
  5. Customer Ratings: Number ratings grade Acetyl-L Carnitine objectively.
  6. Customer Reviews: Closely related to ratings, these paragraphs give you first-hand and detailed information from real-world users about their Acetyl-L Carnitine.
  7. Product Quality: You don’t always get what you pay for with an Acetyl-L Carnitine, sometimes less, and sometimes more.
  8. Product Reliability: How sturdy and durable an Acetyl-L Carnitine is should be an indication of how long it will work out for you.

We always remember that maintaining Acetyl-L Carnitine information to stay current is a top priority, which is why we are constantly updating our websites. Learn more about us using online sources.

If you think that anything we present here regarding Acetyl-L Carnitine is irrelevant, incorrect, misleading, or erroneous, then please let us know promptly! We’re here for you all the time. Contact us here. Or You can read more about us to see our vision.

FAQ:

Q: Does acetyl L-carnitine affect blood pressure?

A: In one study, 2 grams of acetyl-L-carnitine per day resulted in an almost 10-point drop in systolic blood pressure – the top number of a blood pressure reading and an important indicator of heart health and disease risk ( 23 ).

Q: How does acetyl L-carnitine works as a nootropic?

A: How Acetyl L-Carnitine Works as a Nootropic. Acetyl L-Carnitine or ALCAR is often overlooked in the nootropic community. It is the acetylated form of the amino acid, L-Carnitine. By chemically altering L-Carnitine, the acetylated ALCAR is able to provide a fuller range of effects as well as higher bio-availability.

Q: Can acetyl L carnitine cause nerve damage?

A: Bipolar disorder: Acetyl-L-carnitine might worsen symptoms in people with bipolar disorder who are currently in remission. Nerve damage in the hands and feet caused by cancer drug treatment: Acetyl-L-carnitine might worsen symptoms in some people with nerve pain caused by a class of chemotherapy drugs known as taxanes.

Q: Is acetyl L carnitine dangerous?

A: Acetyl L-Carnitine Side Effects. This nootropic is considered very safe for almost all and therefore, there are no dangerous Acetyl L-Carnitine side effects, though some mild and quite rare side-effects such as headaches, nausea, stomach discomfort, and diarrhea can occur in exceptional cases.

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